Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712): The Fragile Throne After Aurangzeb

Birth and Early Life

Prince Mu'azzam, later known as Bahadur Shah I, entered the world on October 14, 1643, in Burhanpur's Shahi Qila. His birth represented the complex cultural fusion of the Mughal dynasty: the son of Emperor Aurangzeb and Nawab Bai of the Jarral Rajput clan. This Rajput lineage proved crucial in shaping his later policies toward Hindu principalities. His early training followed Mughal imperial traditions—mastering Persian, Arabic, military strategy, and administrative governance. At just ten years old, he received his first governorship in Lahore (1653-1659) under Shah Jahan's supervision.

Aurangzeb's relationship with his second son remained strained throughout Mu'azzam's adulthood. As governor of the Deccan in 1663, his failure to prevent Shivaji's raid on Aurangabad drew imperial wrath. The prince's subsequent rebellions in 1670, 1680, and 1687 revealed deep father-son fissures. The 1687 conspiracy with Golconda's ruler proved particularly damaging, leading to Mu'azzam's imprisonment under brutal conditions: forbidden to cut hair or nails for months, his harem exiled to Delhi, and key supporters executed. Historian Munis Faruqui characterizes the prince's subsequent rehabilitation in 1694 as a period of "grudging obedience" under constant surveillance by Aurangzeb's spies.

Succession After Aurangzeb’s Death

Aurangzeb's death on March 3, 1707, ignited a dynastic conflagration. The emperor's failure to designate an heir—a departure from Mughal tradition—plunged the empire into a war of succession among his three surviving sons. Prince Azam Shah, governor of Gujarat, immediately proclaimed himself emperor in Ahmednagar. Bahadur Shah, stationed in Kabul, raced toward Agra with veteran troops from the northwestern frontier. Kam Bakhsh, the youngest, consolidated power in Bijapur.

The decisive Battle of Jajau (June 12, 1707) saw Bahadur Shah's superior artillery and Azam Shah's defecting commanders turn the tide. Chronicler Khafi Khan recorded the gruesome aftermath: "Azam and his son Bidar Bakht lay dead on the field, their bodies carried to Humayun's Tomb." Bahadur Shah then marched south against Kam Bakhsh, whose forces melted away through desertions before their January 1708 clash near Hyderabad. Kam Bakhsh succumbed to battle wounds days later. At 64, Bahadur Shah ascended the throne—but inherited an empire hemorrhaging legitimacy and resources.

Inherited Crisis and Economic Breakdown

Aurangzeb bequeathed a fiscal disaster. Fifty years of relentless Deccan wars (1682-1707) consumed 80% of imperial revenue, shrinking annual income to ₹100 million—half of Shah Jahan's golden age. Bahadur Shah compounded the crisis through reckless generosity: distributing prized jagirs (land grants) to nobles who backed his succession, eroding crown lands to dangerous levels. His monetary policy signaled stagnation; rather than issuing new currency, he merely reminted copper coins under Aurangzeb's name.

The jagirdari system spiraled into chaos. With fewer productive lands available, nobles inflated revenue demands on peasants, triggering widespread agrarian unrest. By 1710, the treasury could no longer fund military campaigns, forcing Bahadur Shah to borrow from Gujarati merchants. This financial hemorrhage critically undermined the empire's capacity to project power.

Failure to Reclaim Deccan Revenue Regions

The Deccan—once the empire's financial engine—collapsed after Aurangzeb's death. Maratha deshmukhs withheld taxes while governors like Daud Khan Panni operated autonomously. Bahadur Shah's attempts to restore control were fatally compromised. His release of Shahu, Shivaji's grandson, aimed to leverage him against the rival Maratha queen Tarabai. But this diplomatic gambit failed when Bahadur Shah granted only sardeshmukhi (10% revenue rights) while denying chauth (25% levy)—a half-measure that satisfied no one.

Without formal recognition or military backing, Shahu's loyalty wavered. The Marathas continued raiding Mughal supply lines, and by 1710, Deccan revenue flows ceased entirely. This failure proved catastrophic, depriving Delhi of resources needed to suppress rebellions elsewhere.

Short-Term Policy Measures

Bahadur Shah reversed some of Aurangzeb's most divisive policies but failed to institutionalize reforms. His abolition of jizya (tax on non-Muslims) and halt to temple destruction generated initial goodwill among Rajputs and Hindus. Yet he retained blasphemy laws and refused to restore Hindus to high administrative positions, revealing the limits of his tolerance.

In Rajputana, he returned annexed kingdoms like Jodhpur and Amber to their rulers—but demanded crippling tributes and royal hostages, breeding resentment rather than loyalty. His engagement with Sikhs followed a similar pattern: he initially granted Guru Gobind Singh a mansab (military rank) and met him personally in 1708. Yet after the Guru's assassination, Bahadur Shah brutally suppressed Banda Bahadur's revolt, ordering the execution of Sikh leaders. These reactive measures lacked the strategic depth needed for lasting stability.

Erosion of Authority Over Regional Powers

Bahadur Shah's reign witnessed the unraveling of Mughal military hegemony. The imperial army, once 500,000 strong, now relied on mercenaries and noble contingents with divided loyalties. Three critical rebellions exposed this weakness:

• Sikhs: Banda Bahadur captured Sirhind (1710), established a capital at Lohgarh, abolished the zamindari system, and redistributed land to peasants—directly challenging Mughal socioeconomic structures.
• Rajputs: Durgadas Rathore renewed hostilities in Mewar, forcing Bahadur Shah to divert troops from the Deccan.
• Marathas: Shahu appointed the cunning Chitpavan Brahman Balaji Vishwanath as Peshwa, laying groundwork for Maratha expansion under Baji Rao.

Simultaneously, Jat and Satnami revolts near Agra disrupted critical supply routes. The nobility grew unchecked; vizier Zulfiqar Khan monopolized revenue appointments while regional governors operated as de facto sovereigns.

Court Politics and Administrative Disarray

Delhi's court degenerated into a theater of factional warfare. Irani, Turani, and Hindustani noble cliques battled for influence while Bahadur Shah struggled to balance them. His promotion of the Sayyid Brothers—future kingmakers—backfired when he denied them key governorships, sowing seeds for future discord. Meanwhile, his sons Jahandar, Azim-ush-Shan, and Rafi-ush-Shan openly built rival power bases, anticipating another succession war.

Administrative reports (akhbarat) detailed rampant corruption; officials embezzled up to 40% of taxes. The emperor, dubbed Shah-i-Bekhabar ("Heedless King") by chronicler Khafi Khan, focused more on poetry and gardens than governance—a damning indictment of his disengagement during crisis.

Final Years and Sudden Death

By 1711, Bahadur Shah marched to Lahore to personally direct the Sikh campaign. Physically frail and politically isolated, he relied on his sons for military operations. While overseeing renovations at Shalimar Gardens—a project emblematic of his cultural priorities—he contracted severe dysentery. On February 27, 1712, the emperor died at age 68. Mughal noble Kamwar Khan attributed death to "spleen enlargement." His burial in Delhi's modest Moti Masjid complex contrasted sharply with the grand tombs of his predecessors—a fitting metaphor for the empire's diminished stature.

Legacy: The Unraveling of an Empire

Bahadur Shah's five-year reign accelerated imperial fragmentation. His death triggered a war among his sons where Jahandar Shah ruled just eleven months before being murdered. The structural decay proved irreversible:

• Territorial Losses: Punjab fell to Sikh misls, Deccan to Marathas, Bengal to Murshid Quli Khan
• Military Decay: The mansabdari system collapsed as nobles refused troop quotas
• Economic Fragmentation: Revenue streams regionalized, starving Delhi of resources

Within three decades, Nadir Shah's 1739 sacking of Delhi would expose the Mughals as shadows of their former power. Bahadur Shah's reign marked the point when centrifugal forces overwhelmed central authority—the moment the Mughal Empire ceased to be an integrated state and became a geopolitical concept.

FAQs: Bahadur Shah I's Pivotal Reign