Muhammad Shah (1719–1748) – The Fall of Glory Amidst Cultural Bloom

The reign of Muhammad Shah Rangila (1719-1748) represents one of history's most striking paradoxes: an era of unprecedented cultural renaissance unfolding alongside catastrophic political collapse. As the Mughal Empire crumbled under the weight of internal decay and external invasions, Delhi witnessed an artistic flowering that would permanently shape the subcontinent's cultural identity. This dual narrative of brilliance and ruin reveals how aesthetic achievement and state failure can coexist in a dying empire.

Early Life and Accession Amidst Palace Coups

Born Roshan Akhtar in Ghazni (modern Afghanistan) on August 7, 1702, Muhammad Shah was the grandson of Emperor Bahadur Shah I. His father Jahān Shah died in the brutal succession struggles of 1712, leaving the young prince vulnerable in a court dominated by factional politics. In 1719, the powerful Sayyid Brothers – kingmakers who had deposed and murdered his cousin Emperor Farrukh-Siyar – installed the 17-year-old as a puppet ruler after two other short-lived monarchs died under suspicious circumstances :cite[1]:cite[2].

Within two years, Muhammad Shah orchestrated a daring counter-coup with Nizam-ul-Mulk, a veteran noble. The Sayyid Brothers were systematically eliminated: Husayn Ali Khan assassinated at Fatehpur Sikri (1720), and Hassan Ali Khan poisoned after military defeat at Hasanpur (1722). Though now free of their control, Muhammad Shah inherited an empire hemorrhaging territory to rebels and regional governors. His reign began with promise but unfolded against a backdrop of systemic rot: depleted treasuries, factionalized nobility, and military stretched thin by revolts from the Koli tribes in Gujarat to the Sikhs in Punjab :cite[1]:cite[3].

Political Instability and Rise of Regional Powers

Muhammad Shah's reign witnessed the accelerated fragmentation of Mughal authority. While Aurangzeb's policies had alienated key allies, Muhammad Shah's passive governance emboldened provincial governors to assert autonomy. By 1724, Nizam-ul-Mulk – disillusioned by court intrigues – resigned as Grand Vizier and returned to the Deccan. He defeated Mughal loyalists at the Battle of Shakar Kheda and established the independent Asaf Jahi dynasty in Hyderabad, taking the title "Nizam-ul-Mulk" :cite[1]:cite[5].

The emperor's response to these centrifugal forces was tepid at best. While regional powers consolidated their authority, Muhammad Shah focused on courtly pleasures rather than governance. Most critically, he neglected the empire's northwestern defenses – historically the primary route for invasions into India. This oversight would soon prove catastrophic :cite[5]:cite[6].

Cultural Renaissance: Music, Painting, and Urdu Poetry

Paradoxically, Muhammad Shah's reign became a golden age of Mughal culture. Nicknamed "Rangila" (The Colorful) for his love of arts, he transformed Delhi into a vibrant hub of creativity. His court attracted musical innovators like Qawwal Bachche, whose fusion of Persian and Indian styles birthed the ghazal genre. Painters adopted European techniques to create delicate miniatures depicting court life and natural subjects, while Urdu poetry flourished as never before :cite[1]:cite[3].

The emperor himself participated actively in this cultural flowering, writing poetry under the pen name "Sadrang". His patronage extended beyond the elite: Urdu evolved from a military camp language into a sophisticated literary medium accessible to common people. This democratization of culture represented a significant social shift in Mughal India :cite[3].

However, this cultural boom remained tragically divorced from political reality. As nobles competed to sponsor poets and musicians, the empire's administration continued to crumble. Tax collection faltered, provincial governors withheld revenues, and military readiness declined. The cultural renaissance thus mirrored the "sunset glow" of Mughal power – vibrant but ephemeral :cite[3].

Nadir Shah’s Invasion (1739) – Causes and Consequences

Nadir Shah, the Afsharid ruler of Persia, invaded India for three strategic reasons:

1. Financial Exhaustion: His prolonged wars against the Ottomans had bankrupted Persia, and India's legendary wealth offered replenishment :cite[1]
2. Mughal Weakness: Persistent rebellions and porous frontiers signaled India's vulnerability :cite[5]
3. Casus Belli: Mughal officials had allegedly mistreated Persian envoys and sheltered Afghan rebels :cite[1]

In late 1738, Nadir Shah crossed the Khyber Pass with 55,000 veteran troops. The Mughal governor of Punjab sent desperate pleas for reinforcements, but Muhammad Shah dismissed the threat. By February 1739, Persian forces captured Lahore without significant resistance :cite[1]:cite[5].

Sack of Delhi and Looting of 700 Million Rupees

The decisive Battle of Karnal (February 24, 1739) exposed Mughal military obsolescence. Despite outnumbering the Persians 3:1 (approximately 75,000 Mughals vs. 25,000 Persians), Muhammad Shah's forces were routed in just three hours. Critical failures included:

• Outdated Artillery: Mughal cannons were immobile; Persian zamburaks (camel-mounted guns) outmaneuvered them
• Leadership Rifts: Generals like Khan Dauran and Nizam-ul-Mulk refused coordinated action
• Poor Intelligence: Mughal scouts underestimated Persian mobility and tactics :cite[1]:cite[5]

After Karnal, Nadir Shah entered Delhi alongside the captive emperor. On March 22, 1739, riots erupted over rumors of Nadir's assassination. In retaliation, he ordered the qatl-e-aam (general massacre). Over six horrific hours, 20,000–30,000 Delhi residents were slaughtered as the city was systematically plundered :cite[1]:cite[5].

Loss of Koh-i-Noor and Peacock Throne

The loot extracted from Delhi remains staggering by any historical standard:

The psychological impact was equally devastating. As chronicler Anand Ram Mukhlis recorded: "The town was reduced to ashes, streets strewn with corpses like dead leaves in a garden" :cite[1]. The throne – Shah Jahan's masterpiece requiring seven years of labor by top artisans – was dismantled and hauled away on elephants. The Koh-i-Noor diamond, later becoming a British crown jewel, was among the spoils. Additionally, 10,000 artisans, soldiers, and elephants were forcibly taken into Persian service :cite[1]:cite[5].

Diplomatic Failure and Loss of Respect Abroad

Muhammad Shah's foreign policy failures significantly contributed to the disaster:

• Northwest Neglect: Repeated warnings about frontier vulnerabilities were ignored, allowing Nadir Shah an unobstructed advance :cite[5]
• Failed Alliances: The Marathas, invited to defend Delhi, never arrived. Rajput chiefs, alienated by earlier policies, withheld support :cite[3]
• Diplomatic Insults: Persian accounts cite the humiliation of envoys as a key provocation :cite[1]

European trading companies, once in awe of Mughal power, now saw an empire in free fall. British East India Company records noted the invasion had "irreparably shattered" Mughal prestige, accelerating their own expansion plans in Bengal and elsewhere :cite[3].

Economic Collapse and Regional Disintegration

Nadir's plunder emptied the imperial treasury. To compensate, nobles imposed crushing taxes on peasants, triggering widespread famines. The loss of Kabul and Punjab (ceded to Persia) stripped the empire of vital revenue sources and strategic buffer zones. By 1748, revenue from the Deccan and Bengal had ceased entirely :cite[5]:cite[6].

Afghan warlord Ahmad Shah Durrani, formerly a Nadir Shah commander, exploited this weakness by annexing Punjab and sacking Delhi four times between 1748–1767. Each raid deepened the economic crisis, reducing the emperor to a mere figurehead without resources or authority :cite[5].

Rise of Hyderabad, Bengal, and Awadh as Independent Powers

The invasion formalized the empire's dissolution into autonomous states:

• Hyderabad: Nizam-ul-Mulk expanded his realm, signing treaties with European powers without Delhi's consent :cite[5]:cite[6]
• Bengal: Alivardi Khan (r. 1740–56) fought off Marathas and paid only nominal homage to Delhi :cite[6]
• Awadh: Safdar Jung (r. 1748–54) used imperial titles but governed autonomously, establishing Lucknow as a cultural rival to Delhi :cite[6]

These states became de facto sovereign entities, forming independent alliances and armies. By Muhammad Shah's death in 1748, the Mughal Empire existed in name only – a hollow shell awaiting formal dissolution :cite[5]:cite[6].

Legacy: Aesthetic Splendor Overshadowed by Catastrophic Plunder

Muhammad Shah died on April 26, 1748, leaving a contested throne and a hollowed-out empire. His legacy remains a study in contrasts: a generous patron who nurtured Urdu poetry and miniature painting, yet a disastrous statesman who enabled imperial collapse. His cultural achievements – preserved in artworks showing him enjoying monsoon festivals or musical gatherings – are eternally overshadowed by the 1739 plunder of Delhi :cite[1]:cite[3].

As historian Michael Axworthy observes: "Without Nadir's invasion, colonial takeover might have taken a different form—or not occurred at all." The loss of the Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor became enduring symbols of a glittering past torn away by violence. Ultimately, Muhammad Shah's reign epitomizes how cultural brilliance, untethered from strategic acumen, can accelerate imperial decline while leaving behind indelible artistic legacies :cite[3].